Point users to update(…, true), JSON Pointer defaults, and built-in std::optional

A code search of client code found many hand-written versions of functionality the library already has: recursive object merges (update(j, true) since 3.10.5), dotted-path getters (value() and contains() with a JSON Pointer), get_or helpers (value() throws for a member that is present but null), and adl_serializer specializations for std::optional (supported since 3.12.0). - modifying_values.md: describe both modes of update(), add a defaults + user settings recipe, and stop recommending Merge Patch for recursive merges. - merge_patch.md: note that null deletes keys, so a merge patch is not a general deep merge; link update(). - default_value.md: add "Nested values" (value/contains with a JSON Pointer, building a pointer from a dotted path with operator/=) and a warning that null and mistyped members are not missing. - value.md: note that a null member is converted, not replaced by the default. - json_pointer.md: link value/contains/at with JSON Pointers. - arbitrary_types.md: note that std::optional needs no serializer. Signed-off-by: Niels Lohmann <mail@nlohmann.me>
2026-10-10 16:37:14 +00:00 · 2026-10-10 16:55:34 +02:00
20 changed files with 1052 additions and 2931 deletions
@@ -1396,7 +1396,7 @@ THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED “AS IS”, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR I
 - The class contains a slightly modified version of the Grisu2 algorithm from Florian Loitsch which is licensed under the [MIT License](https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT) (see above). Copyright &copy; 2009 [Florian Loitsch](https://florian.loitsch.com/)
 - The class contains a copy of [Hedley](https://nemequ.github.io/hedley/) from Evan Nemerson which is licensed as [CC0-1.0](https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/).
 - The class contains parts of [Google Abseil](https://github.com/abseil/abseil-cpp) which is licensed under the [Apache 2.0 License](https://opensource.org/licenses/Apache-2.0).
- The class contains an adapted version of the Eisel-Lemire algorithm, its table of powers of five, and its digit comparison for long numbers from [fast_float](https://github.com/fastfloat/fast_float) by Daniel Lemire and contributors, which is available under the [MIT License](https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT) (used here), the Apache 2.0 License, and the Boost Software License. Copyright &copy; 2021 The fast_float authors
+- The class contains an adapted version of the Eisel-Lemire algorithm and its table of powers of five from [fast_float](https://github.com/fastfloat/fast_float) by Daniel Lemire and contributors, which is available under the [MIT License](https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT) (used here), the Apache 2.0 License, and the Boost Software License. Copyright &copy; 2021 The fast_float authors

 <img align="right" src="https://git.fsfe.org/reuse/reuse-ci/raw/branch/master/reuse-horizontal.png" alt="REUSE Software">

@@ -23,10 +23,9 @@ type to use.
 ## Template parameters

 `NumberFloatType`
-:   the type to store floating-point numbers. The type must be `#!cpp float`, `#!cpp double`, or
-    `#!cpp long double`. The parser converts `#!cpp float`, `#!cpp double`, and a `#!cpp long double` that is IEEE 754
-    binary64 itself. It converts other `#!cpp long double` formats with `#!cpp std::from_chars` where available, or
-    with `#!cpp std::strtold` otherwise. Serialization falls back to `#!cpp std::snprintf`. The
+:   the type to store floating-point numbers. Parsing and serialization are implemented in terms of
+    `#!cpp std::strtof`/`#!cpp std::strtod`/`#!cpp std::strtold` and `#!cpp std::snprintf`, so the type must be
+    `#!cpp float`, `#!cpp double`, or `#!cpp long double`. The
    [binary formats](../../features/binary_formats/index.md) additionally require `#!cpp float` or `#!cpp double`,
    because they have no encoding for `#!cpp long double`. See
    [Template Parameter Requirements](../../features/types/template_parameters.md#numberfloattype).
@@ -119,6 +119,14 @@ changes to any JSON value.

 ## Notes

+!!! warning "`null` members are not missing"
+
+    The default value is used only if the key (or JSON Pointer) does not exist. A member that exists but is
+    `#!json null` is converted like any other value, so `#!cpp j.value("k", 0)` throws a
+    [`type_error.302`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptiontype_error302) if `"k"` is `#!json null`. See
+    [Access with default value](../../features/element_access/default_value.md)
+    for alternatives.
+
 !!! warning "Return type"

    The value function is a template, and the return type of the function is determined by the type of the provided
@@ -347,6 +347,13 @@ struct adl_serializer<boost::optional<T>> {
 NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_END
 ```

+!!! tip "`std::optional` needs no serializer"
+
+    Since version 3.12.0, `std::optional<T>` is supported out of the box when compiling with C++17
+    (`std::nullopt` is converted to and from `null`). Do not write an `adl_serializer` for it; this pattern is only
+    needed for types such as `boost::optional` or for custom semantics. See [Conversions](conversions.md) and
+    [Omitting a field when serializing `std::optional`](conversions.md#omitting-a-field-when-serializing-stdoptional).
+
 !!! note "ABI compatibility"

    Use [`NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_BEGIN`](../api/macros/nlohmann_json_namespace_begin.md) and `NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_END`
@@ -30,6 +30,47 @@ you want to access and a default value in case there is no value stored with tha
    | `#!cpp j.value("append", false)`            | `#!json true`                                        |
    | `#!cpp j.value("logLevel", "verbose")`      | `#!json "verbose"`                                   |

+## Nested values
+
+To read a value deep inside a document, pass a [JSON Pointer](../json_pointer.md) instead of a key. The default value is
+returned if the value at the pointer does not exist, including the case that an intermediate key is missing. There is
+no need to check each level with [`contains`](../../api/basic_json/contains.md) first.
+
+```cpp
+json j = {{"server", {{"port", 8080}}}, {"list", {10, 20}}};
+
+int port = j.value("/server/port"_json_pointer, 80);        // 8080
+int timeout = j.value("/server/limits/timeout"_json_pointer, 30); // 30 (missing intermediate key)
+int second = j.value("/list/1"_json_pointer, 0);            // 20 (numeric tokens index arrays)
+int third = j.value("/list/5"_json_pointer, 0);             // 0 (index out of range)
+
+bool has_port = j.contains("/server/port"_json_pointer);    // true
+bool has_host = j.contains("/server/host/name"_json_pointer); // false
+```
+
+If the path is only available as a dotted string such as `#!cpp "server.port"`, do not build the pointer by
+concatenating `#!cpp "/"` and the parts: keys containing `/` or `~` would be misinterpreted. Append each part as a
+reference token with [`operator/=`](../../api/json_pointer/operator_slasheq.md) instead. It escapes the token for you.
+
+```cpp
+json::json_pointer to_pointer(const std::string& dotted)
+{
+    json::json_pointer ptr;
+    std::istringstream in(dotted);
+    for (std::string token; std::getline(in, token, '.');)
+    {
+        ptr /= token;
+    }
+    return ptr;
+}
+
+int port = j.value(to_pointer("server.port"), 80);          // 8080
+int first = j.value(to_pointer("list.0"), 0);               // 10
+```
+
+The key `#!cpp "a/b"` yields the pointer `#!cpp "/a~1b"`; the dot-splitting itself is up to the caller, so keys
+containing `.` need a different separator.
+
 ## Notes

 !!! failure "Exceptions"
@@ -37,6 +78,31 @@ you want to access and a default value in case there is no value stored with tha
    - With string keys, `value` can only be used with objects. For other types, a [`basic_json::type_error`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptiontype_error306) is thrown.
    - With JSON Pointers, `value` can be used with both objects and arrays. For other types (null, boolean, number, string), a [`basic_json::type_error`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptiontype_error306) is thrown.

+!!! warning "`null` and mistyped members are not missing"
+
+    `value` returns the default value only if the key is **absent**. If the member exists, it is converted to the type
+    of the default value, even if it is `#!json null`. For `#!json {"k": null}`, the call `#!cpp j.value("k", 0)` throws
+    a [`basic_json::type_error`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptiontype_error302), and so does a member of another
+    type such as a string where a number is expected. The same holds for JSON Pointers.
+
+    To treat `#!json null` like a missing value, check for it explicitly:
+
+    ```cpp
+    int n = (j.contains("k") && !j["k"].is_null()) ? j["k"].get<int>() : 0;
+    ```
+
+    With C++17, [`get<std::optional<T>>()`](../../api/basic_json/get.md) maps `#!json null` to an empty optional. As
+    [`at`](../../api/basic_json/at.md) throws [`out_of_range`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range403)
+    for an absent key, use [`find`](../../api/basic_json/find.md) to cover both cases:
+
+    ```cpp
+    std::optional<int> n;                        // empty if "k" is absent or null
+    if (const auto it = j.find("k"); it != j.end())
+    {
+        n = it->get<std::optional<int>>();       // still throws for a non-number such as "text"
+    }
+    ```
+
 !!! warning "Return type"

    The value function is a template, and the return type of the function is determined by the type of the provided
@@ -63,3 +129,6 @@ you want to access and a default value in case there is no value stored with tha

 - [`value`](../../api/basic_json/value.md) for access with default value
 - documentation on [checked access](checked_access.md)
+- documentation on [JSON Pointer](../json_pointer.md)
+- [`contains`](../../api/basic_json/contains.md) to check whether a key or JSON Pointer exists
+- [`json_pointer::operator/=`](../../api/json_pointer/operator_slasheq.md) to build a pointer token by token
@@ -77,6 +77,10 @@ auto val2 = j.at(json::json_pointer("/nested/three/1"));    // false
 auto val3 = j.value(json::json_pointer("/nested/four"), 0); // 0
 ```

+To read a value with a fallback, use [`value`](../api/basic_json/value.md) with a JSON Pointer; to test for existence,
+use [`contains`](../api/basic_json/contains.md). Neither needs intermediate checks, see
+[Nested values](element_access/default_value.md#nested-values).
+
 !!! note "Creating intermediate levels that don't exist"

    See the [`operator[]` notes](../api/basic_json/operator%5B%5D.md#return-value) for how array vs. object is
@@ -126,6 +130,8 @@ auto j_original = j_flat.unflatten();
 ## See also

 - Class [`json_pointer`](../api/json_pointer/index.md)
+- Functions [`value`](../api/basic_json/value.md), [`contains`](../api/basic_json/contains.md), and
+  [`at`](../api/basic_json/at.md) accept JSON Pointers; see [Nested values](element_access/default_value.md#nested-values)
 - Function [`flatten`](../api/basic_json/flatten.md)
 - Function [`unflatten`](../api/basic_json/unflatten.md)
 - [JSON Patch](json_patch.md) - paths inside a patch are JSON Pointers
@@ -9,6 +9,13 @@ syntax that closely mimics the document being modified. Unlike [JSON Patch](json
 express every kind of change (e.g., it cannot reorder array elements or remove a specific array element), but it is
 easier to read and write for object-shaped documents.

+!!! tip "Not a general deep merge"
+
+    A merge patch is not a general deep merge: a `#!json null` value in the patch deletes the key from the target.
+    To merge two objects recursively (e.g., defaults and user settings), use
+    [`update`](../api/basic_json/update.md) with `merge_objects` set to `#!cpp true`; see
+    [Merging objects](modifying_values.md#merging-objects).
+
 ??? example

    The following code shows how a JSON Merge Patch is applied to a JSON document.
@@ -28,3 +35,4 @@ easier to read and write for object-shaped documents.
 - [JSON Patch and Diff](json_patch.md) - a more expressive alternative that describes a sequence of operations
 - [JSON Pointer](json_pointer.md) - the addressing scheme used by JSON Patch
 - Function [`merge_patch`](../api/basic_json/merge_patch.md)
+- Function [`update`](../api/basic_json/update.md) - merge objects, optionally recursively
@@ -35,8 +35,12 @@ the insertion happened — useful for "add if absent" semantics.

 ## Merging objects

-To merge one object into another, [`update`](../api/basic_json/update.md) copies all members from another object,
-overwriting existing keys (similar to Python's `dict.update`). This is the idiomatic way to combine two objects.
+To merge one object into another, [`update`](../api/basic_json/update.md) copies all members from another object
+(similar to Python's `dict.update`). This is the idiomatic way to combine two objects. It has two modes:
+
+- By default, the merge is shallow: existing keys are overwritten, even if both values are objects.
+- With `merge_objects = #!cpp true`, keys whose values are objects in both JSON values are merged recursively.
+  Everything else is overwritten. In particular, arrays are replaced, not concatenated.

 ??? example

@@ -50,9 +54,22 @@ overwriting existing keys (similar to Python's `dict.update`). This is the idiom
    --8<-- "examples/update.output"
    ```

-For a recursive merge that follows [RFC 7386](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7386), see
-[JSON Merge Patch](merge_patch.md). To apply a sequence of well-defined edit operations, see
-[JSON Patch](json_patch.md).
+A common use of the recursive mode is combining defaults with user settings. Nested defaults that the user did not set
+are kept:
+
+```cpp
+json defaults = {{"log", {{"level", "info"}, {"file", "app.log"}}}, {"retries", 3}};
+json user_settings = {{"log", {{"level", "debug"}}}};
+
+json config = defaults;
+config.update(user_settings, true);
+// {"log":{"file":"app.log","level":"debug"},"retries":3}
+```
+
+[JSON Merge Patch](merge_patch.md) ([RFC 7386](https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc7386)) also merges objects recursively,
+but it is a different tool: a `#!json null` in the patch means "remove this key". It is meant for applying merge patch
+documents (e.g., received via HTTP PATCH). To merge configuration-like objects, use `#!cpp update(..., true)`. To apply
+a sequence of well-defined edit operations, see [JSON Patch](json_patch.md).

 ## Removing elements

@@ -72,6 +89,7 @@ a.erase(1);             // [1,3,4]  (erase by index)

 - [`push_back`](../api/basic_json/push_back.md) / [`emplace_back`](../api/basic_json/emplace_back.md) - append to an array
 - [`emplace`](../api/basic_json/emplace.md) - insert into an object if the key is absent
- [`update`](../api/basic_json/update.md) - merge objects
+- [`update`](../api/basic_json/update.md) - merge objects (shallow, or recursive with `merge_objects`)
+- [`merge_patch`](../api/basic_json/merge_patch.md) - apply an RFC 7386 merge patch
 - [`erase`](../api/basic_json/erase.md) / [`clear`](../api/basic_json/clear.md) - remove elements
 - [JSON Patch and Diff](json_patch.md) and [JSON Merge Patch](merge_patch.md) - structured modifications
@@ -82,13 +82,12 @@ flowchart TD

    - Numbers with a decimal digit or scientific notation are always stored as `#!c double`.
    - The number types can be changed, see [Template number types](#template-number-types). 
-    - The library converts integers and floating-point numbers itself, independent of the locale. Floating-point
-      numbers are correctly rounded (to nearest, ties to even). Only a `#!c long double` that is not IEEE 754 binary64
-      (e.g., the 80-bit x87 format) is converted with `#!cpp std::from_chars` where available, or else with
-      [`std::strtold`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/byte/strtof). For that call, the library temporarily
-      replaces the `.` with the decimal point of the current locale (which may be longer than one byte, e.g., in
-      `fa_IR.UTF-8`), so the result does not depend on the locale either. Changing the locale in another thread during
-      parsing is undefined behavior of the C library, though. Before version 3.13.0, the conversion was realized by
+    - Integers are converted by the library's own digit parser. Floating-point numbers are converted with
+      [`std::from_chars`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/utility/from_chars) if the library is compiled with C++17
+      and the standard library supports it, then with an exact fast path for `#!c double` values with few significant
+      digits, and otherwise with the locale-aware
+      [`std::strtod`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/byte/strtof) (`std::strtof`/`std::strtold` for the
+      other floating-point types). Before version 3.13.0, the conversion was realized by
      [`std::strtoull`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/byte/strtoul),
      [`std::strtoll`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/byte/strtol), and `std::strtod`, respectively.

@@ -101,10 +100,10 @@ flowchart TD
 ### Number limits

 - Any 64-bit signed or unsigned integer can be stored without loss of precision.
- Numbers exceeding the limits of `#!c double` (i.e., numbers whose rounded value is not satisfying
+- Numbers exceeding the limits of `#!c double` (i.e., numbers that after conversion via
+[`std::strtod`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/string/byte/strtof) are not satisfying
 [`std::isfinite`](https://en.cppreference.com/w/cpp/numeric/math/isfinite) such as `#!c 1E400`) will throw exception
-[`json.exception.out_of_range.406`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range406) during parsing. Numbers too
-small for `#!c double` (such as `#!c 1E-400`) become zero, with the sign of the number.
+[`json.exception.out_of_range.406`](../../home/exceptions.md#jsonexceptionout_of_range406) during parsing.
 - Floating-point numbers are rounded to the next number representable as `double`. For instance
 `#!c 3.141592653589793238462643383279` is stored as [`0x400921fb54442d18`](https://float.exposed/0x400921fb54442d18).
 This is the same behavior as the code `#!c double x = 3.141592653589793238462643383279;`.
@@ -30,9 +30,9 @@ Requirements are split into two groups:
    diagnosed with dedicated error messages, and violating most of them results in a compiler error somewhere inside
    the library. Four violations are not caught at compile time at all:

-    - A [`StringType`](#stringtype) whose `data()` is not null-terminated compiles and silently misparses numbers
-      stored as a `#!cpp long double` that is not IEEE 754 binary64 (e.g., the 80-bit x87 format), because the lexer
-      hands the buffer to `#!cpp std::strtold`.
+    - A [`StringType`](#stringtype) whose `data()` is not null-terminated compiles and can silently misparse
+      floating-point numbers, because the lexer may hand the buffer to `#!cpp std::strtod`, which reads up to the
+      terminating null character.
    - A stateful [`AllocatorType`](#allocatortype) compiles and silently ignores its state: allocation, deallocation,
      and [`get_allocator()`](../../api/basic_json/get_allocator.md) each use a different default-constructed instance.
    - The two [cross-specialization conversions](#cross-specialization-conversions) below. These abort on an assertion
@@ -353,21 +353,16 @@ using array_t = ArrayType<basic_json, AllocatorType<basic_json>>;
 ### Always required

 - A member type `value_type` that is one byte wide and `char`-compatible. The library stores and processes UTF-8
-  encoded `char` data and passes `data()` to functions that take a `#!cpp const char*`, such as `#!cpp std::strtold`
-  (only used to parse a `#!cpp long double` that is not IEEE 754 binary64, see
-  [`NumberFloatType`](#numberfloattype)).
+  encoded `char` data and passes `data()` to functions that take a `#!cpp const char*`, such as `#!cpp std::strtod`.
  `#!cpp std::wstring`, `#!cpp std::u16string`, and `#!cpp std::u32string` are **not** valid choices; see the FAQ on
  [wide string handling](../../home/faq.md#wide-string-handling).
 - Constructors: default, copy, move, from `#!cpp const char*` (which must not be `#!cpp explicit`), from
  `#!cpp (const char*, size_type)`, and from `#!cpp (size_type, char)`; and copy or move assignment.
 - Member functions `size()`, `clear()`, `resize(n, c)`, `data()`, `push_back(char)`, and `operator[]`
  (const and non-const, returning references). `c_str()` and `back()` are **not** required.
- `data()` must return a pointer to a contiguous, **null-terminated** buffer. `#!cpp float`, `#!cpp double`, and a
-  `#!cpp long double` that is IEEE 754 binary64 are converted by the library itself and do not depend on this. For any
-  other `NumberFloatType` (a `#!cpp long double` of another format), the parser falls back to `#!cpp std::strtold` when
-  `#!cpp std::from_chars` is not available or declines the token, and `std::strtold` reads up to the null character. A type whose `data()`
-  is not null-terminated does not fail to compile; with such a `NumberFloatType` it can silently misparse
-  floating-point numbers.
+- `data()` must return a pointer to a contiguous, **null-terminated** buffer -- the parser may hand it to
+  `#!cpp std::strtod`, which reads up to the null character. A type whose `data()` is not null-terminated does not
+  fail to compile; it can silently misparse floating-point numbers.
 - `append(const char*, size_type)`, used by [`dump`](../../api/basic_json/dump.md), and `append(const StringType&)`,
  used by the CBOR reader for indefinite-length strings. The library's internal string concatenation additionally has
  to append a `#!cpp char` and a `#!cpp const char*`; for each it selects between `append(arg)`, `#!cpp operator+=`,
@@ -546,10 +541,9 @@ therefore silently changes parse results rather than raising an error. See

 `NumberFloatType` must be one of `#!cpp float`, `#!cpp double`, or `#!cpp long double`:

- The [parser](../parsing/index.md) converts number literals to `#!cpp float`, `#!cpp double`, and a
-  `#!cpp long double` that is IEEE 754 binary64 itself; other `#!cpp long double` formats are converted with
-  `#!cpp std::from_chars` where available, or with `#!cpp std::strtold`. The library provides overloads for exactly
-  these three types.
+- The [parser](../parsing/index.md) converts number literals with `#!cpp std::from_chars` or, as a fallback, with
+  `#!cpp std::strtof`, `#!cpp std::strtod`, or `#!cpp std::strtold`; the library provides overloads for exactly these
+  three types.
 - [`dump`](../../api/basic_json/dump.md) falls back to `#!cpp std::snprintf` with the `%g` and `%Lg` conversion
  specifiers, for which the library likewise provides only `#!cpp double` and `#!cpp long double` overloads
  (`#!cpp float` is promoted to `#!cpp double`).
@@ -20,4 +20,4 @@ The class contains a slightly modified version of the Grisu2 algorithm from Flor

 The class contains a copy of [Hedley](https://nemequ.github.io/hedley/) from Evan Nemerson which is licensed as [CC0-1.0](https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/).

-The class contains an adapted version of the Eisel-Lemire algorithm, its table of powers of five, and its digit comparison for long numbers from [fast_float](https://github.com/fastfloat/fast_float) by Daniel Lemire and contributors, which is available under the [MIT License](https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT) (used here), the Apache 2.0 License, and the Boost Software License. Copyright &copy; 2021 The fast_float authors
+The class contains an adapted version of the Eisel-Lemire algorithm and its table of powers of five from [fast_float](https://github.com/fastfloat/fast_float) by Daniel Lemire and contributors, which is available under the [MIT License](https://opensource.org/licenses/MIT) (used here), the Apache 2.0 License, and the Boost Software License. Copyright &copy; 2021 The fast_float authors
@@ -9,9 +9,8 @@
 #pragma once

 #include <cstdint> // uint64_t
-#include <cstring> // memcpy
-#if defined(_MSC_VER) && (defined(_M_X64) || defined(_M_ARM64)) && (!defined(__SIZEOF_INT128__) || (!defined(__GNUC__) && !defined(__clang__)))
-    #include <intrin0.h> // __umulh, _umul128, _BitScanForward64, _BitScanReverse64
+#if !defined(__SIZEOF_INT128__) && defined(_MSC_VER) && (defined(_M_X64) || defined(_M_ARM64))
+    #include <intrin0.h> // __umulh, _umul128
 #endif

 #include <nlohmann/detail/abi_macros.hpp>
@@ -29,10 +28,6 @@ inline int count_leading_zeros(std::uint64_t x) noexcept
 {
 #if defined(__GNUC__) || defined(__clang__)
    return __builtin_clzll(x);
-#elif defined(_MSC_VER) && (defined(_M_X64) || defined(_M_ARM64))
-    unsigned long index = 0; // NOLINT(runtime/int): the type _BitScan*64 takes
-    _BitScanReverse64(&index, x);
-    return 63 - static_cast<int>(index);
 #else
    int n = 0;
    for (int shift = 32; shift != 0; shift >>= 1)
@@ -47,29 +42,6 @@ inline int count_leading_zeros(std::uint64_t x) noexcept
 #endif
 }

-/// number of trailing zero bits of x (x != 0)
-inline int count_trailing_zeros(std::uint64_t x) noexcept
-{
-#if defined(__GNUC__) || defined(__clang__)
-    return __builtin_ctzll(x);
-#elif defined(_MSC_VER) && (defined(_M_X64) || defined(_M_ARM64))
-    unsigned long index = 0; // NOLINT(runtime/int): the type _BitScan*64 takes
-    _BitScanForward64(&index, x);
-    return static_cast<int>(index);
-#else
-    int n = 0;
-    for (int shift = 32; shift != 0; shift >>= 1)
-    {
-        if ((x << (64 - shift)) == 0)
-        {
-            n += shift;
-            x >>= shift;
-        }
-    }
-    return n;
-#endif
-}
-
 /// the 128-bit product of two 64-bit numbers
 struct uint128_parts
 {
@@ -103,26 +75,15 @@ inline uint128_parts full_multiplication(std::uint64_t a, std::uint64_t b) noexc
 #endif
 }

-/// eight bytes as a little-endian word (a single load on little-endian targets)
-inline std::uint64_t read_eight_bytes(const unsigned char* b) noexcept
+/// eight bytes as a little-endian word (compilers fold this into one load on
+/// little-endian targets)
+inline std::uint64_t read_eight_bytes(const char* p) noexcept
 {
-#if defined(_MSC_VER) || defined(__x86_64__) || defined(__i386__) || (defined(__BYTE_ORDER__) && defined(__ORDER_LITTLE_ENDIAN__) && __BYTE_ORDER__ == __ORDER_LITTLE_ENDIAN__)
-    // the byte order already matches (all MSVC targets are little-endian)
-    std::uint64_t result = 0;
-    std::memcpy(&result, b, sizeof(result));
-    return result;
-#else
+    const auto* b = reinterpret_cast<const unsigned char*>(p); // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-pro-type-reinterpret-cast)
    return static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[0]) | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[1]) << 8u)
           | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[2]) << 16u) | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[3]) << 24u)
           | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[4]) << 32u) | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[5]) << 40u)
           | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[6]) << 48u) | (static_cast<std::uint64_t>(b[7]) << 56u);
-#endif
-}
-
-/// eight bytes as a little-endian word
-inline std::uint64_t read_eight_bytes(const char* p) noexcept
-{
-    return read_eight_bytes(reinterpret_cast<const unsigned char*>(p)); // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-pro-type-reinterpret-cast)
 }

 }  // namespace detail
@@ -221,44 +221,6 @@ class lexer : public lexer_base<BasicJsonType>
    // scan functions
    /////////////////////

-    /// contiguous input: try to decode the 4 hex digits following `\\u`
-    /// directly from the input buffer via hex_codepoint(), instead of 4 calls
-    /// to get(). On success, advances the adapter and the position counters
-    /// exactly as those 4 get() calls would (a hex digit is never '\n', so
-    /// only the flat counters move) and leaves @a current holding the last of
-    /// the 4 digits, just as the last such get() would; the codepoint is
-    /// written to @a out. Makes no state change and returns false - for a
-    /// pending unget, fewer than 4 remaining bytes, or any of the 4 bytes not
-    /// being a hex digit - so the caller falls back unchanged to the
-    /// per-character loop, which then reports the same diagnostic (stopping
-    /// at the first invalid digit) as before this optimization.
-    bool get_codepoint_bulk(std::true_type /*bulk*/, int& out)
-    {
-        if (next_unget || ia.bulk_remaining() < 4)
-        {
-            return false;
-        }
-        const char_type* const raw = ia.bulk_data();
-        const int codepoint = hex_codepoint(reinterpret_cast<const unsigned char*>(raw));
-        if (codepoint < 0)
-        {
-            return false;
-        }
-        ia.bulk_skip(4);
-        // a hex digit is never a newline, so only the flat counters advance
-        position.chars_read_total += 4;
-        position.chars_read_current_line += 4;
-        current = char_traits<char_type>::to_int_type(raw[3]);
-        out = codepoint;
-        return true;
-    }
-
-    /// streaming input: no bulk fast path
-    bool get_codepoint_bulk(std::false_type /*bulk*/, int& /*out*/) const noexcept
-    {
-        return false;
-    }
-
    /*!
    @brief get codepoint from 4 hex characters following `\\u`

@@ -278,14 +240,6 @@ class lexer : public lexer_base<BasicJsonType>
    {
        // this function only makes sense after reading `\u`
        JSON_ASSERT(current == 'u');
-
-        // contiguous input: decode all 4 hex digits directly from the buffer
-        int fast_codepoint = 0;
-        if (get_codepoint_bulk(std::integral_constant<bool, bulk_scan> {}, fast_codepoint))
-        {
-            return fast_codepoint;
-        }
-
        int codepoint = 0;

        const auto factors = { 12u, 8u, 4u, 0u };
@@ -1090,11 +1044,9 @@ class lexer : public lexer_base<BasicJsonType>
            token_type::parse_error otherwise

    @note The scanner is independent of the current locale: token_buffer
-          always holds `.`. The conversion of float and double does not use
-          the locale either. Only the std::strtold fallback of
-          convert_number() for long double formats other than binary64
-          depends on it, and it looks up the decimal point right before
-          converting (see detail::convert_float_locale_aware()).
+          always holds `.`. Only the std::strtod fallback of convert_number()
+          depends on the locale, and it looks up the decimal point right
+          before converting (see detail::convert_float_locale_aware()).
    */
    token_type scan_number()  // lgtm [cpp/use-of-goto] `goto` is used in this function to implement the number-parsing state machine described above. By design, any finite input will eventually reach the "done" state or return token_type::parse_error. In each intermediate state, 1 byte of the input is appended to the token_buffer vector, and only the already initialized variables token_buffer, number_type, and error_message are manipulated.
    {
@@ -1107,7 +1059,7 @@ class lexer : public lexer_base<BasicJsonType>

        // offset just past the last mantissa byte in token_buffer (i.e. the
        // index of 'e'/'E', or the whole token when there is no exponent).
-        // convert_number() uses it to split the token; npos means
+        // convert_number() uses it to count significant digits; npos means
        // "not seen an exponent yet" and is resolved at scan_number_done
        std::size_t mantissa_end = std::string::npos;

@@ -1437,8 +1389,8 @@ scan_number_done:
    @param[in] mantissa_end  offset just past the last mantissa byte in
                             token_buffer (the index of 'e'/'E', or
                             token_buffer.size() when there is no exponent);
-                             with decimal_point_position, it locates the parts
-                             of a float token without scanning it again
+                             used to skip Clinger's fast path when it cannot
+                             possibly succeed - see detail::mantissa_fits_clinger()
    */
    token_type convert_number(token_type number_type, std::size_t mantissa_end)
    {
@@ -1492,11 +1444,10 @@ scan_number_done:
        }

        // this code is reached if we parse a floating-point number or if an
-        // integer conversion above overflowed. float and double (and long
-        // double where it is binary64) are converted by the library itself,
-        // correctly rounded and independent of the locale; other long double
-        // formats use std::from_chars when available, otherwise the
-        // locale-aware strtold.
+        // integer conversion above overflowed. Prefer std::from_chars
+        // (Eisel-Lemire, locale-independent, correctly rounded) when available;
+        // otherwise the exact Clinger fast path (double only); otherwise the
+        // locale-aware strtof/strtod/strtold.
        if (convert_float_fast(num_begin, num_end, decimal_point_position, mantissa_end, value_float))
        {
            return token_type::value_float;
@@ -22,10 +22,6 @@ namespace detail
 constexpr std::int64_t pow5_128_smallest_power = -342;
 constexpr std::int64_t pow5_128_largest_power = 308;

-// every entry of pow5_128() holds two 64-bit halves of 5^q, one per covered power of 5
-static_assert((pow5_128_largest_power - pow5_128_smallest_power + 1) * 2 == 1302,
-              "pow5_128_smallest_power/pow5_128_largest_power must match the size of the pow5_128() table");
-
 /*!
@brief 128-bit approximations of 5^q for q in [-342, 308]

@@ -8,12 +8,10 @@

 #pragma once

-#include <array> // array
 #include <cstddef> // size_t
-#include <cstdint> // uint64_t, uint8_t
+#include <cstdint> // uint64_t
 #include <cstring> // memcpy

-#include <nlohmann/detail/bit_ops.hpp>
 #include <nlohmann/detail/macro_scope.hpp>

 // Optional SIMD backend for bulk UTF-8 validation. This is an opt-in external
@@ -71,12 +69,18 @@ inline std::size_t find_string_special(const unsigned char* data, std::size_t n)
    std::size_t i = 0;
    for (; i + 8 <= n; i += 8)
    {
-        const std::uint64_t special = swar_string_special(read_eight_bytes(data + i));
-        if (special != 0)
+        std::uint64_t word = 0;
+        std::memcpy(&word, data + i, sizeof(word));
+        if (swar_string_special(word) != 0)
        {
-            // the lowest flagged byte is the first special one: the borrows of
-            // the subtractions can only flag bytes above a true hit
-            return i + (static_cast<std::size_t>(count_trailing_zeros(special)) / 8);
+            // a special byte is in this word; locate it (endian-agnostic)
+            for (std::size_t j = 0; j < 8; ++j)
+            {
+                if (is_string_special(data[i + j]))
+                {
+                    return i + j;
+                }
+            }
        }
    }
    for (; i < n; ++i)
@@ -110,7 +114,8 @@ inline std::size_t find_ascii_copyable_run(const unsigned char* data, std::size_
    std::size_t i = 0;
    for (; i + 8 <= n; i += 8)
    {
-        const std::uint64_t v = read_eight_bytes(data + i);
+        std::uint64_t v = 0;
+        std::memcpy(&v, data + i, sizeof(v));
        const std::uint64_t q = v ^ 0x2222222222222222ull; // '"'  (0x22)
        const std::uint64_t b = v ^ 0x5C5C5C5C5C5C5C5Cull; // '\\' (0x5C)
        const std::uint64_t d = v ^ 0x7F7F7F7F7F7F7F7Full; // DEL  (0x7F)
@@ -121,9 +126,7 @@ inline std::size_t find_ascii_copyable_run(const unsigned char* data, std::size_
                                   | (v & high);               // >= 0x80
        if (stop != 0)
        {
-            // the lowest flagged byte is the first one to stop at (see
-            // find_string_special())
-            return i + (static_cast<std::size_t>(count_trailing_zeros(stop)) / 8);
+            break;
        }
    }
    for (; i < n; ++i)
@@ -250,19 +253,13 @@ inline std::size_t scalar_string_bulk_run(const unsigned char* data, std::size_t
        {
            break; // end of buffer, or a quote/escape/control byte
        }
-        // a run of multi-byte sequences (e.g. CJK text) is validated sequence
-        // by sequence without searching for the next special byte in between
-        do
-        {
        const std::size_t seq = validate_one_utf8(data + pos, n - pos);
        if (seq == 0)
        {
-                return pos; // ill-formed or truncated: let the byte path diagnose it
+            break; // ill-formed or truncated: let the byte path diagnose it
        }
        pos += seq;
    }
-        while (pos < n && data[pos] >= 0x80u);
-    }
    return pos;
 }

@@ -276,7 +273,8 @@ inline std::size_t find_string_delimiter(const unsigned char* data, std::size_t
    std::size_t i = 0;
    for (; i + 8 <= n; i += 8)
    {
-        const std::uint64_t v = read_eight_bytes(data + i);
+        std::uint64_t v = 0;
+        std::memcpy(&v, data + i, sizeof(v));
        const std::uint64_t q = v ^ 0x2222222222222222ull;
        const std::uint64_t b = v ^ 0x5C5C5C5C5C5C5C5Cull;
        const std::uint64_t hit = ((q - ones) & ~q & high)
@@ -284,8 +282,14 @@ inline std::size_t find_string_delimiter(const unsigned char* data, std::size_t
                                  | ((v - 0x2020202020202020ull) & ~v & high);
        if (hit != 0)
        {
-            // the lowest flagged byte is the first delimiter (see find_string_special())
-            return i + (static_cast<std::size_t>(count_trailing_zeros(hit)) / 8);
+            for (std::size_t j = 0; j < 8; ++j)
+            {
+                const unsigned char c = data[i + j];
+                if (c == '\"' || c == '\\' || c < 0x20u)
+                {
+                    return i + j;
+                }
+            }
        }
    }
    for (; i < n; ++i)
@@ -316,50 +320,5 @@ inline std::size_t string_bulk_run(const unsigned char* data, std::size_t n) noe
    return scalar_string_bulk_run(data, n);
 }

-// Decode the 4 hex digits at [data, data+4) - the digits following a `\u`
-// escape - into a codepoint 0x0000..0xFFFF via one table lookup per byte
-// (after yyjson's read_hex_u16), or return -1 if any of the 4 bytes is not a
-// hex digit ('0'..'9', 'A'..'F', 'a'..'f'). The caller must already have
-// checked that 4 bytes are available; used by lexer::get_codepoint()'s
-// contiguous fast path. On -1 it falls back to the byte-at-a-time loop, which
-// stops at the first invalid digit, so the reported error and position are
-// unaffected by this fast path.
-inline int hex_codepoint(const unsigned char* data) noexcept
-{
-    static const std::array<std::uint8_t, 256> hex_digit_table = // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-avoid-non-const-global-variables)
-    {
-        {
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 00..0F
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 10..1F
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 20..2F
-            0x00, 0x01, 0x02, 0x03, 0x04, 0x05, 0x06, 0x07, 0x08, 0x09, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 30..3F ('0'..'9')
-            0xFF, 0x0A, 0x0B, 0x0C, 0x0D, 0x0E, 0x0F, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 40..4F ('A'..'F')
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 50..5F
-            0xFF, 0x0A, 0x0B, 0x0C, 0x0D, 0x0E, 0x0F, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 60..6F ('a'..'f')
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 70..7F
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 80..8F
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // 90..9F
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // A0..AF
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // B0..BF
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // C0..CF
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // D0..DF
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, // E0..EF
-            0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF, 0xFF  // F0..FF
-        }
-    };
-
-    const std::uint8_t d0 = hex_digit_table[data[0]];
-    const std::uint8_t d1 = hex_digit_table[data[1]];
-    const std::uint8_t d2 = hex_digit_table[data[2]];
-    const std::uint8_t d3 = hex_digit_table[data[3]];
-    // every valid digit is <= 0xF; the combined OR only exceeds it if at
-    // least one of the four bytes was not a hex digit (looked up as 0xFF)
-    if ((d0 | d1 | d2 | d3) > 0x0F)
-    {
-        return -1;
-    }
-    return (d0 << 12) | (d1 << 8) | (d2 << 4) | d3;
-}
-
 }  // namespace detail
 NLOHMANN_JSON_NAMESPACE_END
@@ -1,599 +0,0 @@
-//     __ _____ _____ _____
-//  __|  |   __|     |   | |  JSON for Modern C++ (supporting code)
-// |  |  |__   |  |  | | | |  version 3.12.0
-// |_____|_____|_____|_|___|  https://github.com/nlohmann/json
-//
-// SPDX-FileCopyrightText: 2013-2026 Niels Lohmann <https://nlohmann.me>
-// SPDX-License-Identifier: MIT
-
-#pragma once
-
-#include <array> // array
-#include <cstdint> // uint32_t, uint64_t
-
-// Number tokens that are hard to round correctly, with the IEEE-754 binary64
-// and binary32 bits of their correctly rounded values (ties to even; infinity
-// for an overflow, a signed zero for an underflow).
-//
-// For doubles and floats around 0, the smallest normal number, 1, 2^24, 2^53,
-// 0.1, and the largest finite number, and for random ones, the exact midpoint
-// m to the next number gives: m, m with one unit more and less in the last
-// digit, m with "01" and "0...01" appended, m with trailing zeros, and m cut
-// after 17 to 30 digits (rounded down and up, so that the rounding is decided
-// after the 19th digit), in fixed and exponent notation, 30% of them negative.
-// Tokens longer than 80 characters are left out, except for four of 700 digits
-// and more. Zeros, underflow, overflow, huge exponents, and integers beyond 64
-// bits complete the set. Of the 508 tokens, 134 (as double) and 150 (as
-// float) need the exact comparison with the midpoint (detail::digit_comparison()).
-//
-// The expected bits were computed with exact rational arithmetic in Python
-// (fractions.Fraction) and cross-checked with Python's float(); strtod_l and
-// strtof_l of Apple's libc and of glibc agree. Generated by
-// compact_hard_cases.py 5 (with hard_cases.py), see the pull request that
-// added this file.
-
-namespace float_hard_cases
-{
-
-struct hard_case
-{
-    const char* token;
-    std::uint64_t bits64;
-    std::uint32_t bits32;
-};
-
-inline const std::array<hard_case, 508>& cases()
-{
-    static const std::array<hard_case, 508> table =
-    {
-        {
-            {"-2.4703282292062327e-324", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"24703282292062328e-340", 0x0000000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"247032822920623272e-341", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-0.2470328229206232721e-323", 0x8000000000000001u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"-0.24703282292062327208e-323", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"-2.4703282292062327209e-324", 0x8000000000000001u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"2.47032822920623272088e-324", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"247032822920623272089e-344", 0x0000000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-247032822920623272088284396434e-353", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.247032822920623272088284396435e-323", 0x0000000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-74109846876186981e-340", 0x8000000000000001u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.74109846876186982e-323", 0x0000000000000002u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-0.7410984687618698162e-323", 0x8000000000000001u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"-7.410984687618698163e-324", 0x8000000000000002u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"7.4109846876186981626e-324", 0x0000000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-74109846876186981627e-343", 0x8000000000000002u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"-741098468761869816264e-344", 0x8000000000000001u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.741098468761869816265e-323", 0x0000000000000002u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.741098468761869816264853189302e-323", 0x0000000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-7.41098468761869816264853189303e-324", 0x8000000000000002u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.22250738585072006e-307", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"2.2250738585072007e-308", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"2.225073858507200641e-308", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-2225073858507200642e-326", 0x800FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x80000000u},
-            {"22250738585072006419e-327", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.2225073858507200642e-307", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.222507385850720064199e-307", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"2.225073858507200642e-308", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-2.22507385850720064199176395546e-308", 0x800FFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x80000000u},
-            {"222507385850720064199176395547e-337", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-2.2250738585072011e-308", 0x800FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x80000000u},
-            {"-22250738585072012e-324", 0x8010000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"-2225073858507201136e-326", 0x800FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.2225073858507201137e-307", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.2225073858507201136e-307", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-2.2250738585072011361e-308", 0x8010000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"2.22507385850720113605e-308", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"222507385850720113606e-328", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"22250738585072011360574097967e-336", 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.222507385850720113605740979671e-307", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"22250738585072016e-324", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.22250738585072017e-307", 0x0010000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.222507385850720163e-307", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"2.225073858507201631e-308", 0x0010000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-2.2250738585072016301e-308", 0x8010000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"22250738585072016302e-327", 0x0010000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-222507385850720163012e-328", 0x8010000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.222507385850720163013e-307", 0x0010000000000001u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"0.222507385850720163012305563795e-307", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-2.22507385850720163012305563796e-308", 0x8010000000000001u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.17976931348623156E+309", 0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"1.7976931348623157e308", 0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"1.797693134862315608e308", 0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"-1797693134862315609e290", 0xFFEFFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0xFF800000u},
-            {"-17976931348623156083e289", 0xFFEFFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0xFF800000u},
-            {"-0.17976931348623156084E+309", 0xFFEFFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0xFF800000u},
-            {"0.179769313486231560835E+309", 0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"-1.79769313486231560836e308", 0xFFEFFFFFFFFFFFFFu, 0xFF800000u},
-            {"1.79769313486231560835325876058e308", 0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFEu, 0x7F800000u},
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-                "6665599493827577257201576306269066333264756530000924588831643303777979186961204949739037782970490505"
-                "1080609940730262937128958950003583799967207254304360284078895771796150945516748243471030702609144621"
-                "5722898802581825451803257070188608721131280795122334262883686223215037756666225039825343359745688844"
-                "2390026549819838548794829220689472168983109969836584681402285424333066033985088644580400103493397042"
-                "756718644338377048603786162277173854562306587467901408672332763671875000000000000000000001e-308", 0x0010000000000000u, 0x00000000u
-            },
-            {
-                "0.11754942807573642917278829910357665133228589927589904276829631184250030649651730385585324256680905"
-                "8189392089843750000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000e-37", 0x380FFFFFE0000000u, 0x00800000u
-            },
-            {
-                "1175494280757364291727882991035766513322858992758990427682963118425003064965173038558532425668090581"
-                "8939208984375000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
-                "00000000000001e-751", 0x380FFFFFE0000000u, 0x00800000u
-            },
-            {"0", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-0", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0.0", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-0.0", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"0e999999999999999999999", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-0.000e-99999", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"1e-400", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-1e-400", 0x8000000000000000u, 0x80000000u},
-            {"1e400", 0x7FF0000000000000u, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"-1e400", 0xFFF0000000000000u, 0xFF800000u},
-            {"1e-50", 0x358DEE7A4AD4B81Fu, 0x00000000u},
-            {"-1e-50", 0xB58DEE7A4AD4B81Fu, 0x80000000u},
-            {"1e39", 0x48078287F49C4A1Du, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"-1e39", 0xC8078287F49C4A1Du, 0xFF800000u},
-            {"1e99999999999999999999999999", 0x7FF0000000000000u, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"1e-99999999999999999999999999", 0x0000000000000000u, 0x00000000u},
-            {"1e0000000000000000000000000000000000000000308", 0x7FE1CCF385EBC8A0u, 0x7F800000u},
-            {"123456789012345678901234567890e-30", 0x3FBF9ADD3746F65Fu, 0x3DFCD6EAu},
-            {"18446744073709551615", 0x43F0000000000000u, 0x5F800000u},
-            {"18446744073709551616", 0x43F0000000000000u, 0x5F800000u},
-            {"-9223372036854775808", 0xC3E0000000000000u, 0xDF000000u},
-            {"-9223372036854775809", 0xC3E0000000000000u, 0xDF000000u},
-        }
-    };
-    return table;
-}
-
-} // namespace float_hard_cases
@@ -13,20 +13,16 @@
 using nlohmann::json;

 #include <array> // array
+#include <cfloat> // FLT_EVAL_METHOD
 #include <cstdint> // uint32_t, uint64_t
-#include <cstdio> // snprintf
 #include <cstdlib> // strtod
 #include <cstring> // memcpy
 #include <limits> // numeric_limits
-#include <map> // map
-#include <random> // mt19937
 #include <sstream> // stringstream
 #include <string> // string
 #include <utility> // pair
 #include <vector> // vector

-#include "float_hard_cases.hpp"
-
 namespace
 {
 // shortcut to scan a string literal
@@ -262,7 +258,7 @@ TEST_CASE("lexer number fast path")
            "123456789012345678901234567890",  // huge -> float
            "0.30000000000000004", "2.2250738585072014e-308", "1e308",
            // high-precision / wide-exponent values that exercise the
-            // Eisel-Lemire path beyond the Clinger subset
+            // std::from_chars (Eisel-Lemire) path beyond the Clinger subset
            "1.7976931348623157e308", "1.2345678901234567e-250",
            "9007199254740993", "5e-324", "1e-320"
        };
@@ -284,18 +280,20 @@ TEST_CASE("lexer number fast path")
        }
    }

-    SECTION("significant digits around Clinger's fast path")
+    SECTION("significant-digit gate for the Clinger fast path")
    {
-        // Clinger's fast path needs a significand of at most 2^53, which
-        // tokens with 17 or more significant digits exceed. The conversion
-        // splits the token at the positions the scanners recorded, so leading
-        // zeros must not count as digits - "0.1234567890123456" has 16
-        // significant digits, not 17 - and both scanners must agree.
+        // Clinger's fast path needs a significand below 2^53, so it cannot
+        // succeed once the mantissa has 17 or more significant digits (the
+        // significand would be at least 10^16). The lexer skips the attempt
+        // there. That is only allowed to save work: every value must still come
+        // out bit-exactly, and both scanners must agree. In particular the gate
+        // must not fire for tokens whose leading zeros merely look like extra
+        // digits - "0.1234567890123456" has 16 significant digits, not 17.
        const std::vector<std::string> numbers =
        {
            "1234567890123456",                  // 16 significant digits
-            "12345678901234567",                 // 17
-            "123456789012345678",                // 18
+            "12345678901234567",                 // 17 -> attempt skipped
+            "123456789012345678",                // 18 -> attempt skipped
            "0.1234567890123456",                // 16: the leading "0" is not significant
            "0.12345678901234567",               // 17
            "0.00000000000000001",               // 1, in a long token
@@ -666,323 +664,46 @@ TEST_CASE("lexer string fast path")
    }
 }

-TEST_CASE("lexer escape fast path")
+TEST_CASE("parse_float_fast declines what it cannot convert exactly")
 {
-    // json::accept() never throws, so this section stays covered without
-    // exceptions; it pins which of the cases below are valid/invalid and
-    // checks the contiguous and streaming paths agree on that classification.
-    SECTION("accept() parity")
+    // The lexer only hands well-formed numbers to parse_float_fast, so the
+    // malformed ones below can only be passed to it directly. Declining is
+    // always safe: the caller then falls back to a slower, exact conversion.
+    const auto fast = [](const std::string & s, double & out)
    {
-        const std::vector<std::pair<std::string, bool>> cases =
-        {
-            {"\\u0041", true}, {"\\u00e4", true}, {"\\u00E4", true},
-            {"\\uD83D\\uDE00", true},
-            {"\\u12", false}, {"\\u12G4", false}, {"\\uXYZW", false},
-            {"\\uD800", false}, {"\\uD800A", false}, {"\\uD800\\u0041", false},
-            {"\\uDC00", false}, {"\\u", false}
+        return nlohmann::detail::parse_float_fast(s.data(), s.data() + s.size(), out);
    };
+    double out = 0;

-        for (const auto& c : cases)
-        {
-            for (const std::size_t offset :
-                    {
-                        std::size_t{0}, std::size_t{9}
-                    })
-            {
-                const std::string doc = "[\"" + std::string(offset, 'a') + c.first + "\"]";
-                CAPTURE(doc)
-                CHECK(json::accept(doc) == c.second);
-                std::stringstream ss(doc);
-                CHECK(json::accept(ss) == c.second);
-            }
-        }
-    }
-
-#if !defined(JSON_NOEXCEPTION)
-    // the full outcome of parsing @a doc: the parsed value, or the exact
-    // error message, so a mismatch in either is caught
-    const auto outcome = [](const std::string & doc, bool streaming) -> std::string
-    {
-        try
-        {
-            if (streaming)
-            {
-                std::stringstream ss(doc);
-                const json j = json::parse(ss);
-                return j.dump();
-            }
-            const json j = json::parse(doc);
-            return j.dump();
-        }
-        catch (const json::exception& e)
-        {
-            return {e.what()};
-        }
-    };
-
-    SECTION("contiguous vs streaming parity")
-    {
-        const std::vector<std::string> escapes =
-        {
-            "\\u0041",             // "A"
-            "\\u00e4",             // "ä" (lowercase hex)
-            "\\u00E4",             // "ä" (uppercase hex)
-            "\\uD83D\\uDE00",      // valid surrogate pair (an emoji)
-            "\\u12",               // truncated: only 2 hex digits before the closing quote
-            "\\u12G4",             // invalid hex digit at the 3rd position
-            "\\uXYZW",             // all 4 bytes invalid
-            "\\uD800",             // lone high surrogate, string ends right after
-            "\\uD800A",            // high surrogate not followed by another \u escape
-            "\\uD800\\u0041",      // high surrogate followed by \u, but not a low surrogate
-            "\\uDC00",             // lone low surrogate
-            "\\u",                 // '\u' with nothing after (closing quote right away)
-        };
-
-        // once at the start of the string and once past the first 8-byte SWAR
-        // word of the outer string_bulk_run, so the escape is reached both
-        // right after the opening quote and mid-run
-        for (const auto& escape : escapes)
-        {
-            for (const std::size_t offset :
-                    {
-                        std::size_t{0}, std::size_t{9}
-                    })
-            {
-                const std::string doc = "[\"" + std::string(offset, 'a') + escape + "\"]";
-                CAPTURE(doc)
-                CHECK(outcome(doc, false) == outcome(doc, true));
-            }
-
-            // the escape is the last thing before end of input: no closing
-            // quote at all
-            const std::string truncated_doc = "[\"" + escape;
-            CAPTURE(truncated_doc)
-            CHECK(outcome(truncated_doc, false) == outcome(truncated_doc, true));
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("truncated \\u escape at every distance from the end of input")
-    {
-        // ia.bulk_remaining() must correctly report fewer than 4 bytes for
-        // every possible count of trailing hex-looking bytes (0, 1, 2, or 3)
-        // before end of input, so the fast path declines and the byte path
-        // alone reports the "must be followed by 4 hex digits" error, at the
-        // same position, in every case
-        for (const std::string& tail :
-                {
-                    std::string{}, std::string("1"), std::string("12"), std::string("123")
-                })
-        {
-            const std::string doc = "[\"\\u" + tail;
-            CAPTURE(doc)
-            CHECK(outcome(doc, false) == outcome(doc, true));
-            CHECK(outcome(doc, false).find("must be followed by 4 hex digits") != std::string::npos);
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("invalid hex digit at every position of the 4")
-    {
-        // the fast path must decline for *any* invalid byte among the 4, not
-        // just the first, and the byte path must then stop at exactly that
-        // position - same as it always has
-        for (std::size_t bad_pos = 0; bad_pos < 4; ++bad_pos)
-        {
-            std::string digits = "1234";
-            digits[bad_pos] = 'g'; // not a hex digit
-            const std::string doc = "[\"\\u" + digits + "\"]";
-            CAPTURE(doc)
-            CHECK(outcome(doc, false) == outcome(doc, true));
-            CHECK(outcome(doc, false).find("must be followed by 4 hex digits") != std::string::npos);
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("random escapes")
-    {
-        // A seeded PRNG builds the 4 bytes following `\u` from a mix of hex
-        // digits and non-hex bytes, at varying distances from the start of
-        // the string, to compare the two scanners on many more shapes than
-        // are practical to enumerate by hand.
-        std::mt19937 gen(7654321); // NOLINT(cert-msc32-c,cert-msc51-cpp,bugprone-random-generator-seed)
-        const std::string hex_alphabet = "0123456789AaBbCcDdEeFf";
-        std::uniform_int_distribution<std::size_t> pick_hex(0, hex_alphabet.size() - 1);
-        std::uniform_int_distribution<int> pick_byte(1, 255); // never NUL
-        std::uniform_int_distribution<int> pick_is_hex(0, 4); // 4-in-5 chance of a hex digit
-        std::uniform_int_distribution<std::size_t> pick_offset(0, 12);
-
-        std::vector<std::string> mismatches;
-        for (int iter = 0; iter < 3000; ++iter)
-        {
-            std::string digits;
-            for (int i = 0; i < 4; ++i)
-            {
-                if (pick_is_hex(gen) != 0)
-                {
-                    digits += hex_alphabet[pick_hex(gen)];
-                }
-                else
-                {
-                    char c = static_cast<char>(pick_byte(gen));
-                    if (c == '"' || c == '\\')
-                    {
-                        // keep the string well-formed apart from the escape
-                        // itself, so any mismatch is attributable to the \u
-                        // handling and not to an unrelated quote/escape
-                        c = 'z';
-                    }
-                    digits += c;
-                }
-            }
-            const std::string doc = "[\"" + std::string(pick_offset(gen), 'a') + "\\u" + digits + "\"]";
-            if (outcome(doc, false) != outcome(doc, true))
-            {
-                mismatches.push_back(doc);
-            }
-        }
-        CAPTURE(mismatches)
-        CHECK(mismatches.empty());
-    }
+#if defined(FLT_EVAL_METHOD) && FLT_EVAL_METHOD != 0
+    // without true double precision, the fast path declines everything
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1.5", out));
+#else
+    CHECK(fast("1.5", out));
+    CHECK(out == 1.5);
+    CHECK(fast("+2.5e1", out));
+    CHECK(out == 25.0);
+    CHECK(fast("-25E-1", out));
+    CHECK(out == -2.5);
+    CHECK(fast("1e", out));
+    CHECK(out == 1.0);
 #endif
-}

-namespace
-{
-// the index of the decimal point (or npos) and of the end of the mantissa of a
-// number token, which the lexer records while scanning it
-std::pair<std::size_t, std::size_t> float_token_layout(const std::string& s)
-{
-    std::size_t dot = std::string::npos;
-    std::size_t mantissa_end = s.size();
-    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < s.size(); ++i)
-    {
-        if (s[i] == '.')
-        {
-            dot = i;
-        }
-        else if (s[i] == 'e' || s[i] == 'E')
-        {
-            mantissa_end = i;
-            break;
-        }
-    }
-    return {dot, mantissa_end};
-}
+    // not a number
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("-", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast(".", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1.2.3", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1x", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1e+", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1e1x", out));

-template<typename FloatType>
-FloatType parse_native(const std::string& s)
-{
-    const auto layout = float_token_layout(s);
-    return nlohmann::detail::parse_float_native<FloatType>(s.data(), s.data() + s.size(), layout.first, layout.second);
-}
-
-std::uint64_t bits_of(double d)
-{
-    std::uint64_t b = 0;
-    std::memcpy(&b, &d, sizeof(b));
-    return b;
-}
-
-std::uint32_t bits_of(float f)
-{
-    std::uint32_t b = 0;
-    std::memcpy(&b, &f, sizeof(b));
-    return b;
-}
-
-std::uint64_t native_bits64(const std::string& s)
-{
-    return bits_of(parse_native<double>(s));
-}
-
-std::uint32_t native_bits32(const std::string& s)
-{
-    return bits_of(parse_native<float>(s));
-}
-} // namespace
-
-TEST_CASE("parse_float_native rounds correctly")
-{
-    SECTION("double")
-    {
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1.5") == 0x3FF8000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("0.1") == 0x3FB999999999999Au);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("-0.0") == 0x8000000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("0e999999999999999999999") == 0u);
-        // 2^53 + 1 is exactly between two doubles: ties to even, unless more digits follow
-        CHECK(native_bits64("9007199254740993") == 0x4340000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("9007199254740993.0000000000000000001") == 0x4340000000000001u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("9007199254740992.9999999999999999999") == 0x4340000000000000u);
-        // 1 + 2^-53 exactly (a tie), and one unit in the 55th digit around it
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1.00000000000000011102230246251565404236316680908203125") == 0x3FF0000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1.00000000000000011102230246251565404236316680908203126") == 0x3FF0000000000001u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1.00000000000000011102230246251565404236316680908203124") == 0x3FF0000000000000u);
-        // subnormal and overflow boundaries
-        CHECK(native_bits64("2.4703282292062327e-324") == 0u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("2.4703282292062328e-324") == 1u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("2.2250738585072011e-308") == 0x000FFFFFFFFFFFFFu);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("2.2250738585072012e-308") == 0x0010000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1.7976931348623157e308") == 0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFFu);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1.7976931348623159e308") == 0x7FF0000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("-1e400") == 0xFFF0000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("-1e-400") == 0x8000000000000000u);
-        // exponents and zeros far beyond the range cancel out
-        CHECK(native_bits64("0." + std::string(1000, '0') + "1e1001") == 0x3FF0000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1" + std::string(1000, '0') + "e-1000") == 0x3FF0000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1e-99999999999999999999999") == 0u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64("1E+99999999999999999999999") == 0x7FF0000000000000u);
-        // more digits than any midpoint has (769): only whether a nonzero digit follows matters
-        const std::string tie = "1.00000000000000011102230246251565404236316680908203125";
-        CHECK(native_bits64(tie + std::string(800, '0')) == 0x3FF0000000000000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits64(tie + std::string(800, '0') + "1") == 0x3FF0000000000001u);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("float")
-    {
-        CHECK(native_bits32("1.5") == 0x3FC00000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("0.1") == 0x3DCCCCCDu);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("-0.0") == 0x80000000u);
-        // 2^24 + 1 is exactly between two floats
-        CHECK(native_bits32("16777217") == 0x4B800000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("16777217.000000000000000000001") == 0x4B800001u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("16777218.999999999999999999999") == 0x4B800001u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("16777219") == 0x4B800002u);
-        // subnormal and overflow boundaries
-        CHECK(native_bits32("3.4028235677973366e38") == 0x7F7FFFFFu);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("3.4028235677973367e38") == 0x7F800000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("7.006492321624085e-46") == 0u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("7.006492321624086e-46") == 1u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("1.1754942e-38") == 0x007FFFFFu);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("-1.17549435e-38") == 0x80800000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("1e39") == 0x7F800000u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("-1e-50") == 0x80000000u);
-        // not rounded through double: its double would round to another float
-        CHECK(native_bits32("1.00000005960464477539062500000000001") == 0x3F800001u);
-        CHECK(native_bits32("9007199254740993") == 0x5A000000u);
-    }
-
-    SECTION("the conversion shared with other parsers")
-    {
-        // convert_float() gives the lexer's results, for every type
-        const std::vector<std::string> tokens =
-        {
-            "0", "-0.0", "1.5", "0.1", "1e-400", "-2.5E+3", "123456789012345678901234567890",
-            "9007199254740993.0000000000000000001", "4.9406564584124654e-324"
-        };
-        using float_json = nlohmann::basic_json<std::map, std::vector, std::string, bool, std::int64_t, std::uint64_t, float>;
-        using long_double_json = nlohmann::basic_json<std::map, std::vector, std::string, bool, std::int64_t, std::uint64_t, long double>;
-        for (const auto& t : tokens)
-        {
-            CAPTURE(t)
-            const auto layout = float_token_layout(t);
-            const char* const first = t.data();
-            const char* const last = first + t.size();
-            const auto d = nlohmann::detail::convert_float<double>(first, last, layout.first, layout.second);
-            const auto f = nlohmann::detail::convert_float<float>(first, last, layout.first, layout.second);
-            const auto ld = nlohmann::detail::convert_float<long double>(first, last, layout.first, layout.second);
-            CHECK(bits_of(d) == bits_of(json::parse(t).get<double>()));
-            CHECK(bits_of(f) == bits_of(float_json::parse(t).get<float>()));
-            CHECK(ld == long_double_json::parse(t).get<long double>());
-        }
-    }
+    // numbers that are not represented exactly on the fast path
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("12345678901234567890", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1e10000", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("9007199254740993", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1e23", out));
+    CHECK_FALSE(fast("1e-23", out));
 }

 namespace
@@ -1086,6 +807,40 @@ std::size_t big_bit_length(const big_uint& a)
    }
    return n;
 }
+
+std::uint64_t bits_of(double d)
+{
+    std::uint64_t b = 0;
+    std::memcpy(&b, &d, sizeof(b));
+    return b;
+}
+
+bool eisel_lemire(const std::string& s, double& out)
+{
+    return nlohmann::detail::parse_float_eisel_lemire(s.data(), s.data() + s.size(), out);
+}
+
+// significant digits of a token, without trailing zeros
+std::size_t significant_digits(const std::string& s)
+{
+    std::string digits;
+    for (const char c : s)
+    {
+        if (c == 'e' || c == 'E')
+        {
+            break;
+        }
+        if (c >= '0' && c <= '9' && !(digits.empty() && c == '0'))
+        {
+            digits += c;
+        }
+    }
+    while (!digits.empty() && digits.back() == '0')
+    {
+        digits.pop_back();
+    }
+    return digits.size();
+}
 } // namespace

 TEST_CASE("Eisel-Lemire float conversion")
@@ -1513,33 +1268,26 @@ TEST_CASE("Eisel-Lemire float conversion")
        for (const auto& c : known)
        {
            CAPTURE(c.first)
-            CHECK(native_bits64(c.first) == c.second);
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("binary32")
+            double out = 0;
+            if (eisel_lemire(c.first, out))
            {
-        using binary32 = nlohmann::detail::ieee_binary_format<24>;
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(0, 1) == 0x3F800000u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-1, 1) == 0x3DCCCCCDu);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-1, 15) == 0x3FC00000u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(0, 16777217) == 0x4B800000u); // tie, to even
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(0, 16777219) == 0x4B800002u); // tie, to even
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-45, 1) == 0x00000001u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-46, 7) == 0x00000000u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-46, 8) == 0x00000001u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-65, 9999999999999999999u) == 0x00000000u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(20, 3402823466385288598u) == 0x7F7FFFFFu);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(20, 3402823669209384635u) == 0x7F800000u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(39, 1) == 0x7F800000u);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::eisel_lemire<binary32>(-5, 0) == 0x00000000u);
+                CHECK(bits_of(out) == c.second);
+            }
+            else
+            {
+                // only tokens with more than 19 significant digits are left to
+                // strtod: those whose value lies too close to a tie
+                CHECK(significant_digits(c.first) > 19);
+            }
+        }
    }

    SECTION("round trip")
    {
-        // every double written by to_chars and read back, and its 17-digit
-        // form with trailing digits that make the token longer than 19 digits
+        // every double written by to_chars and read back, also with trailing
+        // digits that make the token longer than 19 digits
        std::uint64_t state = 5295;
+        std::size_t declined = 0;
        for (int i = 0; i < 200000; ++i)
        {
            state ^= state << 13u;
@@ -1561,51 +1309,30 @@ TEST_CASE("Eisel-Lemire float conversion")
            const char* end = nlohmann::detail::to_chars(buffer.data(), buffer.data() + buffer.size(), d);
            const std::string token(buffer.data(), static_cast<std::size_t>(end - buffer.data()));
            CAPTURE(token)
-            CHECK(native_bits64(token) == b);
+            double out = 0;
+            REQUIRE(eisel_lemire(token, out));
+            CHECK(bits_of(out) == b);

-            // insert digits before the exponent of the 17-digit form: that
-            // form lies strictly inside the rounding interval of the double
-            // (the shortest one may lie on its boundary), and the digits move
-            // it by far less than the distance to the boundary, so the value
-            // must not change
-            std::array<char, 64> digits17{};
-            static_cast<void>(std::snprintf(digits17.data(), digits17.size(), "%.17g", d)); // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-pro-type-vararg,hicpp-vararg)
-            std::string longer = digits17.data();
+            // insert digits before the exponent: the value moves by far less
+            // than the distance to the rounding boundary, so it must not change
+            std::string longer = token;
            const std::size_t e = longer.find('e');
            const std::size_t dot = longer.find('.');
            const std::string extra = dot == std::string::npos ? ".000000000000000000001" : "000000000000000000001";
            longer.insert(e == std::string::npos ? longer.size() : e, extra);
            CAPTURE(longer)
-            CHECK(native_bits64(longer) == b);
-        }
-    }
-
-    SECTION("round trip, binary32")
+            if (eisel_lemire(longer, out))
            {
-        std::uint32_t state = 5295;
-        for (int i = 0; i < 100000; ++i)
-        {
-            state ^= state << 13u;
-            state ^= state >> 17u;
-            state ^= state << 5u;
-            std::uint32_t b = state;
-            if ((b & 0x7F800000u) == 0x7F800000u)
-            {
-                continue; // infinity or NaN
+                CHECK(bits_of(out) == b);
            }
-            if (i % 4 == 0)
+            else
            {
-                b &= 0x807FFFFFu; // subnormals
+                // w and w + 1 round differently: only when the value is very
+                // close to a rounding boundary
+                ++declined;
            }
-            float f = 0;
-            std::memcpy(&f, &b, sizeof(f));
-
-            std::array<char, 64> buffer{};
-            const char* end = nlohmann::detail::to_chars(buffer.data(), buffer.data() + buffer.size(), f);
-            const std::string token(buffer.data(), static_cast<std::size_t>(end - buffer.data()));
-            CAPTURE(token)
-            CHECK(native_bits32(token) == b);
        }
+        CHECK(declined < 1000); // 107 of the 200,000
    }

    SECTION("used by the lexer")
@@ -1619,184 +1346,3 @@ TEST_CASE("Eisel-Lemire float conversion")
                             "[json.exception.out_of_range.406] number overflow parsing '1.7976931348623159e308'", json::out_of_range&);
    }
 }
-
-namespace
-{
-using float_json = nlohmann::basic_json<std::map, std::vector, std::string, bool, std::int64_t, std::uint64_t, float>;
-
-// the bits of the float that parse() gives for a token, via both scanners;
-// the value must be the same for both
-template<typename Json, typename Bits>
-void check_parse(const std::string& token, Bits expected, Bits infinity)
-{
-    std::stringstream stream(token);
-    if ((expected & ~(Bits{1} << ((8 * sizeof(Bits)) - 1))) == infinity)
-    {
-        Json _;
-        CHECK_THROWS_WITH_AS(_ = Json::parse(token), ("[json.exception.out_of_range.406] number overflow parsing '" + token + "'").c_str(), typename Json::out_of_range&);
-        CHECK_THROWS_WITH_AS(_ = Json::parse(stream), ("[json.exception.out_of_range.406] number overflow parsing '" + token + "'").c_str(), typename Json::out_of_range&);
-        return;
-    }
-    const Json contiguous = Json::parse(token);
-    const Json streamed = Json::parse(stream);
-    if (contiguous.is_number_float()) // not an integer that fits
-    {
-        CHECK(bits_of(contiguous.template get<typename Json::number_float_t>()) == expected);
-        CHECK(bits_of(streamed.template get<typename Json::number_float_t>()) == expected);
-    }
-    else
-    {
-        CHECK(streamed.is_number_integer());
-    }
-}
-} // namespace
-
-TEST_CASE("float conversion of hard cases")
-{
-    // see float_hard_cases.hpp
-    for (const auto& c : float_hard_cases::cases())
-    {
-        const std::string token = c.token;
-        CAPTURE(token)
-        CHECK(native_bits64(token) == c.bits64);
-        CHECK(native_bits32(token) == c.bits32);
-        check_parse<json>(token, c.bits64, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>(token, c.bits32, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-    }
-}
-
-TEST_CASE("float overflow and underflow in the parser")
-{
-    SECTION("double")
-    {
-        check_parse<json>("1.7976931348623157e308", std::uint64_t{0x7FEFFFFFFFFFFFFFu}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("1.7976931348623159e308", std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("-1e309", std::uint64_t{0xFFF0000000000000u}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("1" + std::string(400, '0'), std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("1e99999999999999999999", std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        // an underflow gives a zero with the sign of the token
-        check_parse<json>("1e-400", std::uint64_t{0}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("-1e-400", std::uint64_t{0x8000000000000000u}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("-2.4703282292062327e-324", std::uint64_t{0x8000000000000000u}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-        check_parse<json>("0." + std::string(400, '0') + "1", std::uint64_t{0}, std::uint64_t{0x7FF0000000000000u});
-    }
-
-    SECTION("float")
-    {
-        check_parse<float_json>("3.4028234e38", std::uint32_t{0x7F7FFFFFu}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>("3.4028236e38", std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>("-1e39", std::uint32_t{0xFF800000u}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>("1e-46", std::uint32_t{0}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>("-1e-46", std::uint32_t{0x80000000u}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>("-7.006492321624085e-46", std::uint32_t{0x80000000u}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-        check_parse<float_json>("-7.006492321624086e-46", std::uint32_t{0x80000001u}, std::uint32_t{0x7F800000u});
-    }
-}
-
-TEST_CASE("string scanning kernels")
-{
-    // the word-at-a-time kernels must stop exactly where a byte-by-byte scan
-    // stops, for any content, length, and alignment
-    const auto reference_special = [](const unsigned char* data, std::size_t n)
-    {
-        std::size_t i = 0;
-        while (i < n && !nlohmann::detail::is_string_special(data[i]))
-        {
-            ++i;
-        }
-        return i;
-    };
-    const auto reference_copyable = [](const unsigned char* data, std::size_t n)
-    {
-        std::size_t i = 0;
-        while (i < n && nlohmann::detail::is_ascii_copyable(data[i]))
-        {
-            ++i;
-        }
-        return i;
-    };
-    const auto reference_bulk_run = [](const unsigned char* data, std::size_t n)
-    {
-        std::size_t i = 0;
-        while (i < n)
-        {
-            if (data[i] < 0x80u)
-            {
-                if (nlohmann::detail::is_string_special(data[i]))
-                {
-                    break;
-                }
-                ++i;
-                continue;
-            }
-            const std::size_t seq = nlohmann::detail::validate_one_utf8(data + i, n - i);
-            if (seq == 0)
-            {
-                break;
-            }
-            i += seq;
-        }
-        return i;
-    };
-
-    // pieces: ordinary ASCII, stops, DEL, well-formed sequences of every
-    // length, and ill-formed or truncated ones
-    const std::vector<std::string> pieces =
-    {
-        "a", "Z", " ", "~", "0123456789", "\"", "\\", std::string(1, '\0'), "\n", "\x1F", "\x7F",
-        "\xC3\xA4", "\xE2\x82\xAC", "\xE6\x97\xA5\xE6\x9C\xAC", "\xF0\x9F\x98\x80", "\xED\x9F\xBF",
-        "\x80", "\xC0\x80", "\xC3", "\xE2\x82", "\xED\xA0\x80", "\xF4\x90\x80\x80", "\xFF",
-    };
-    std::uint64_t state = 5295;
-    const auto next = [&state]()
-    {
-        state ^= state << 13u;
-        state ^= state >> 7u;
-        state ^= state << 17u;
-        return state;
-    };
-    // the upper half as a 32-bit value: converts to std::size_t implicitly on
-    // every platform (a cast of std::uint64_t is useless where both are the
-    // same type, and required where std::size_t is 32 bits wide)
-    const auto next_small = [&next]()
-    {
-        return static_cast<std::uint32_t>(next() >> 32u);
-    };
-    for (int round = 0; round < 100000; ++round)
-    {
-        // mostly ordinary text, so that runs span several words
-        std::string text(next_small() % 8u, '.');
-        const std::size_t count = next_small() % 12u;
-        for (std::size_t k = 0; k < count; ++k)
-        {
-            const std::size_t p = (next() % 4 == 0) ? next_small() % pieces.size() : 0;
-            text += pieces[p];
-            text += std::string(next_small() % 10u, 'x');
-        }
-        const auto* data = reinterpret_cast<const unsigned char*>(text.data()); // NOLINT(cppcoreguidelines-pro-type-reinterpret-cast)
-        for (std::size_t offset = 0; offset < 3 && offset <= text.size(); ++offset)
-        {
-            const std::size_t n = text.size() - offset;
-            CAPTURE(text)
-            CAPTURE(offset)
-            CHECK(nlohmann::detail::find_string_special(data + offset, n) == reference_special(data + offset, n));
-            CHECK(nlohmann::detail::find_ascii_copyable_run(data + offset, n) == reference_copyable(data + offset, n));
-            CHECK(nlohmann::detail::scalar_string_bulk_run(data + offset, n) == reference_bulk_run(data + offset, n));
-        }
-    }
-
-    // the trailing-zero count, whichever implementation the compiler gets
-    for (int k = 0; k < 64; ++k)
-    {
-        const std::uint64_t bit = std::uint64_t{1} << k;
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::count_trailing_zeros(bit) == k);
-        CHECK(nlohmann::detail::count_trailing_zeros(bit | (bit << 1u) | 0x8000000000000000u) == k);
-    }
-
-    // eight bytes as a little-endian word, at any alignment
-    const std::array<unsigned char, 16> bytes = {{0x01, 0x02, 0x03, 0x04, 0x05, 0x06, 0x07, 0x08, 0x09, 0x0A, 0x0B, 0x0C, 0x0D, 0x0E, 0x0F, 0xFF}};
-    CHECK(nlohmann::detail::read_eight_bytes(bytes.data()) == 0x0807060504030201u);
-    CHECK(nlohmann::detail::read_eight_bytes(bytes.data() + 1) == 0x0908070605040302u);
-    CHECK(nlohmann::detail::read_eight_bytes(bytes.data() + 8) == 0xFF0F0E0D0C0B0A09u);
-    CHECK(nlohmann::detail::read_eight_bytes(reinterpret_cast<const char*>(bytes.data()) + 3) == 0x0B0A090807060504u);
-}
@@ -260,11 +260,10 @@ struct LocaleSwitchingSax final: public nlohmann::json_sax<json>

 TEST_CASE("locale changes between lexer construction and number conversion (#5198)")
 {
-    // float and double are converted without the locale. A long double that
-    // is not binary64 can take the strtold fallback, which honors the locale
-    // that is current at conversion time. The numbers are chosen so that it
-    // does: too many significant digits for Clinger's fast path, an underflow
-    // that std::from_chars rejects, and a plain value.
+    // The numbers are chosen so that the conversion also takes the strtod
+    // fallback, which honors the locale that is current at conversion time:
+    // too many significant digits for Clinger's fast path, an underflow that
+    // std::from_chars rejects, and a plain value.
    const std::vector<std::string> numbers = {"3.14159265358979323846", "1.5e-400", "12.34", "-0.000123456789012345678"};
    std::string text = "[";
    for (const auto& n : numbers)
@@ -328,8 +327,7 @@ TEST_CASE("locale changes between lexer construction and number conversion (#519
            }
        }

-        // a long double goes through std::strtold unless it is binary64 or
-        // std::from_chars supports it
+        // a long double goes through std::strtold unless std::from_chars supports it
        {
            bool switched = false;
            const auto cb = [&](int /*depth*/, long_double_json::parse_event_t event, long_double_json& /*parsed*/) noexcept
@@ -355,15 +353,8 @@ TEST_CASE("locale with a multi-byte decimal point")
 {
    // Some locales use a decimal point that is not a single character, e.g.
    // U+066B ARABIC DECIMAL SEPARATOR (two bytes in UTF-8). It cannot be
-    // substituted in place for '.', so the strtold fallback (only for long
-    // double formats other than binary64) converts a copy of the token with
-    // the whole decimal point instead (#5660). The values must be those of the
-    // "C" locale.
-    using long_double_json = nlohmann::basic_json<std::map, std::vector, std::string, bool, std::int64_t, std::uint64_t, long double>;
-    const char* const long_double_numbers = "[3.14159265358979323846, 1.5e-400, -0.000123456789012345678]";
-    REQUIRE(std::setlocale(LC_NUMERIC, "C") != nullptr);
-    const long_double_json expected_long_double = long_double_json::parse(long_double_numbers);
-
+    // substituted in place for '.', so the strtod fallback stops early. The
+    // conversion must still terminate rather than retry forever.
    const std::array<const char*, 6> names = {{"ar_EG.UTF-8", "ar_SA.UTF-8", "fa_IR.UTF-8", "ps_AF.UTF-8", "ar_EG", "fa_IR"}};
    bool tested = false;
    for (const char* name : names)
@@ -381,20 +372,12 @@ TEST_CASE("locale with a multi-byte decimal point")
        tested = true;

        // too many significant digits for Clinger's fast path, and an underflow
-        // that std::from_chars rejects: double does not depend on the locale
+        // that std::from_chars rejects: both reach the strtod fallback
        json j;
        CHECK_NOTHROW(j = json::parse("[3.14159265358979323846, 1.5e-400, -0.000123456789012345678]"));
        CHECK(j.is_array());
-        CHECK(j[0] == 3.14159265358979323846);
-        CHECK(j[1] == 0.0);
-        CHECK(j[2] == -0.000123456789012345678);
        CHECK(json::accept("3.14159265358979323846"));

-        // a long double that reaches the strtold fallback is not truncated
-        long_double_json ld;
-        CHECK_NOTHROW(ld = long_double_json::parse(long_double_numbers));
-        CHECK(ld == expected_long_double);
-
        // a value the locale-independent paths convert is not affected
        CHECK(json::parse("12.5") == 12.5);
    }